大学英语论文范例优秀5篇
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大学英语论文【第一篇】
社会文化理论的主要内容
社会文化理论的核心概念是中介论和内化论。中介论认为人所特有的高级认知功能在低级生物性功能（如听觉、嗅觉）的基础上产生，以社会文化的产物——符号来中介个体和社会物质世界的关系。人是运用符号工具作为辅助手段来控制和重组低级生物心理过程（这种过程大部分属于自动的对外界刺激的反射），这种控制使人区别于其他物种，是自觉而有意的，以间接地调节与他人、与自身、与世界的关系。符号工具包括数字、计算系统、音乐、艺术成果、文学作品，尤其是语言。通过社会互动，语言符号才开始在行为中由外到内发挥心理工具的作用，也就是将自然的心理过程转化为高级认知功能。中介的一种形式是调节。调节分成物体调节、他人调节和自我调节。物体调节指个体直接受周围环境的控制和影响；他人调节指儿童的思维和行动依靠成人的语言；自我调节指儿童能够依靠自己的语言思维和行动。
在二语学习中，他人调节指学习者在老师、父母、同伴等的指导帮助下进行协作式交谈的学习；自我调节指学习者具备了自主运用语言的能力。学习是从他人调节到自我调节的中介过程，依靠面对面的交流一起解决问题。内化指社会成员把交际活动中的符号产物转化成心理产物以中介自己的心理活动的过程，是从社会关系或更具体说是社会相互作用逐渐向个人内心品质转化的过程，并使个人掌控自己的大脑。维果茨基指出，内化过程是从人际活动的心理间平台转化成个体的心理内平台的过程，内化是通过模仿机制形成的，内化的关键在于人具备模仿他人有意识活动的能力。但这种模仿并非机械重复，而是受制于社会文化调节，只有当学习者积极参与社会交流或者在自我话语中创造性地模仿他人的话语时，语言输入才起重要作用（Lantolf&Thorne,2007:201）。社会文化理论还有一些其他概念，比较重要的是最近发展区和搭架子。
最近发展区（TheZoneofProximalDevelopment,ZPD）指“儿童独立解决问题的发展水平在成人指导下或在有能力的同伴合作中解决问题的潜在发展水平之间的差距”。最新研究表明，最近发展区可以：（1）在专家与新手之间的互动中，能力通过社会互动转移给新手；（2）在新手与新手的互动之间，能力相当的同伴通过合作、讨论得以构建（Donato,1994）。最近发展区是由教育所创建生成的，两种发展水平之间的距离也由教学动态来决定，且是不断发展变化的过程，最近发展区的向前发展就是学生学业的不断进步。维果茨基认为“教育学不应当以儿童发展的昨天，而应当以儿童发展的明天为方向。只有这样，教育学才能在教学过程中激起那些目前处于最近发展区的发展过程。继而他发现，就教育过程而言，重要的不是着眼于学生现在已经完成的发展过程，而是要关注那些正处于形成的状态或正在发展的过程。而搭架子指任何成人——儿童或专家——新手的协作的行为。儿童或新手还不能独立运用某些知识和技能，但可以通过谈话借助对方给予“搭架子”的帮助获得期望的结果。儿童或学习者通过专家或较成熟者进行协作式交谈，实现共同理解而最终获得新的知识与技能。Wood等认为支架式帮助有以下六个特点：激化完成任务的兴趣；简化任务；维持任务目标的方向性；突出任务的关键特征，以及目前任务完成状态和理想状态之间的差距；控制解决问题过程中的挫折；提供示范。
社会文化理论与认知语言学的主要区别
在二语习得研究方面，目前主要有两大学派：认知派和社会文化派，二者的语言观、学习观、研究对象和哲学倾向都不同。一般来说，通过分析事物对立面，更能认识事物本身。这也是社会科学的重要研究方法。因此，这里谈谈社会文化理论与认知语言学的主要区别。在语言观上，认知派认为语言是心理现象，由抽象规则组成，存在于个人大脑中；社会文化派则认为语言是社会现象，与文化混为一谈，无法分割，存在于人们的交际活动中。在学习观上，认知派认为学习发生在个体内部，学习者将输入有选择地整合到已有的知识体系中，通过不断输出，逐步将陈述性知识转化成程序性知识；社会文化派则认为学习是社会参与的结果，学习者运用语言参与社会交际活动，获得语言和文化知识，转而成为个人脑内活动的材料。在研究对象上，认知派主张二语习得研究的对象是第二语言的运用，而不是语言习得，语言的使用和语言习得是不可分割的，研究的焦点在于社会/互动因素及其对语言使用产生的影响。认知派认为学习的最终状态是学习者的语言水平达到目的语水平或者出现僵化现象；社会文化派认为语言学习没有最终状态，学习者永远都处于学习状态之中。在哲学倾向上，认知派主张现代派观点，坚持人和社会环境互为独立实体的二元论观点，认为无论社会环境因素发生多大改变，二语习得终究是心理过程，语言学习所处的社会环境变化不会引起习得方式大的变化；社会文化派主张后现代派的观点，认为社会文化环境中的语言使用对二语习得起着根本性而不是辅助性的作用，人类心智机能的起源和发展都包含在社会和文化的互动之中。
社会文化理论对大学英语教学的指导
充分学习中外优秀文化前述内化论认为社会文化理论认为语言学习并不完全依靠学习者对语言知识的内化，批评认知框架下的二语习得研究忽视了社会文化环境对学习过程的影响，进而强调社会环境对语言学习的重要作用，强调人类心智机能的起源和发展都包含在社会和文化的互动之中。因此我们在大学英语教学中要教育学生充分学习中外优秀文化，从中吸取丰富的营养，加深自己对世界、对社会、对人生的理解。这对内化学生学习能力有益处，学生能够更好地把握语句隐含的意思，领会作者的意图，掌握语篇结构，真正学会英语，有效提高交际能力。引导学生参加用英语做事的社会实践社会文化理论强调社会文化因素在人类独特的认知功能中的核心作用，把语言习得看作是将社会活动和认知过程联系在一起的社会文化现象（Lantolf&Thorne,2006）。因此，在大学英语教学中我们要引导学生参加用英语做事的社会实践，在实践中创造性地模仿地道的英语。只要我们指导学生多动脑筋，多下功夫，就会找到许多用英语做事的社会实践，比如到在本地召开的涉外商务洽谈会、博览会、体育比赛中做翻译助理、志愿者，到外国人经常出入的场所兼职，主动找外国人交流，在网上和外国人聊天等等，方式多种多样。激发学生的最近发展区如前所述，维果茨基认为，就教育过程而言，重要的是关注那些正处于形成的状态或正在发展的过程，因此我们在大学英语教学中要想方设法激发学生的最近发展区。对学生刚学到的英语知识和英语技能要趁热打铁，及时复习，及时运用。这样，学到的东西才能过手，真正变成自己的东西。为此，我们要认真分析哪些是学生的最近发展区并据此制定及时循环，及时复习的计划。这样坚持下去，学生的能力一步一步稳固形成，学生英语综合素质的提高就指日可待。引导学生协作式学习前述搭架子是通过协作实现共同理解而最终获得新的知识和技能。这种协作可以是成熟者与学习者之间的，也可以是学习者之间的，因此在大学英语教学中，我们要注意与学生的协作，了解学生的学习目标、学习时间、学习习惯、学习态度、学习方法、学习困惑等等，也让学生了解老师的教学风格、教学思路、教学安排，相互沟通，协作学习。我们也要鼓励学生相互之间协作学习，互相请教，互相探讨，顺利地从他人调节过渡到自我调节。只有完成这一过渡，学生的英语学习才会更轻松，效果才更好。#p#分页标题#e#
英语论文格式参考【第二篇】
Abstract
Business negotiations under different cultural conditions are cultural negotiations. With the development of economic globalization and frequent business contacts, cultural differences have become very important. If they are neglected, they could cause unnecessary misunderstanding, or even undermine the result of business negations. Therefore, it is of great significance to know different cultures of different countries as well as ways to avoid cultural conflicts in the context of international business negotiations. The paper begins with the definition of culture, analyzes the causes of cultural differences and explains the impact of cultural differences on international business negotiations from three perspectives of communication process, negotiation style and values concept. Finally, it analyzes effective ways to deal with the problem arising from cultural differences in the negotiation process. The paper stresses that in business negotiations between different countries negotiators should accept the other partys culture, try to make him be accepted and make a correct evaluation with help of effective communications. In a word, for successful cultural negotiations, cultural differences need to be perceived, accepted and most importantly played down.
Key words: culture cultural difference business negotiation impact
Contents
1. Cultural difference…….………..……...…………………………...…......4
The definition of culture……………………………………..............….....4
The causes of cultural differences……………………………..………......4
Geographical differences………………………..………………....….....4
Ethnic differences…………………………..………………....................4
Political differences…………………………..………….………….…...4
Economic differences…………………………………..….……….…....4
Religious differences……………………………………..………….......4
The concept of difference…………………………………...……….......5
Importance of international business negotiations on Cultural differences…………………………………………………………….…..5
2. Cultural differences on the impact of international business negotiations…………………………………………………..………...........5
Communication process……………………………...…...……...…....…..5
Negotiating style…………………...…..……..……………...……….…...8
Values………………...…………....….……..…………………….......…..8
Ethics………………………………………..……..………………...…..8
Sense………………………..……………………………..……….…. ...8
Concept of Collective…………………………………………………....8
Concept of time……………………………………………………….....8
3. How to deal with international business negotiations and cultural differences……………………..…………………………………………........9
To learn more about the former in the negotiations of the cultural differences that may arise………...…………………..……………….…..9
In the negotiations necessary to correctly handle the cultural differences………………………………………………………………...9
Negotiations to do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences…………...…………………………………………......……10
4. References…………………...………….………………………….……....11
Business negotiation in interpersonal relationships as a special form, relate to different geographical, ethnic, social and cultural exchanges and contacts, which have taken place in cross-cultural negotiations. In cross-cultural negotiations, the different geographical, ethnic, cultural differences will affect the thinking of those negotiations, the negotiation style and behavior, thus affecting the entire negotiation process. Therefore, to engage in business activities, especially for the cross-border business activities must understand and master the links between different cultures and differences. Conducting negotiations with the organization, also have to understand that cultural differences impact on the negotiations, only the face of such a positive impact on the desired objectives can be achieved.
1. Cultural differences
the definition of culture
National culture is a country-specific concepts and value systems, which constitute the concept of peoples lives and work behavior. The nations of the world as a result of specific historical and geographical and gradually formed its own unique cultural traditions and cultural patterns. As the difference of Chinese and Western traditional customs, values, religious beliefs , different ways of thinking, etc, making the different performance of Chinese and Western cultures.
the causes of cultural differences
Cultural diversity caused by many reasons, To sum up, the main source of cultural differences are in the following areas:
geographical differences
Refers to the geographical differences in different geographic regions due to the geographical environment, the level of economic development and traditional differences in habits, people often have different language, lifestyle and hobbies. And these will affect their behavior. For example, the West and the American people in some countries treat Christmas important, but in areas such as near the equator do not have snow all the year round, the people of some African countries may not have the concept of Christmas because the best modified Christmas is snow, as to the people in the region that are not long-term snow ,there is little concentration of Christmas than American States.
national differences
Ethnic differences is the different ethnic groups in the development of long-term process, the formation of their own language, customs and preferences, habits. Their diet, clothing, accommodation, festivals and rituals, such as material and cultural life of their own characteristics. Take the history of our country and our Hun Han, the Xiongnu people are valiant, characteristics of typical nomads. And we tame the Han character, the typical characteristics of farming nation. Which led to the Huns in the diet, clothing, accommodation, festivals and rituals, such as material and cultural life are different with Han.
the political differences
Political differences are due to the political system and the policies and regulations on peoples behavior with the role of a standardized, so that all peoples in the political aspects on the concept of the existence are differences. Take the United States and France as example, the United States by the Constitution the powers of the President of the severe restrictions on the two major powers with other institutions of Congress and the Supreme Court of strong constraints. While France also had to set was ready to royalist restoration of the monarchy of the Third Republic to amend the Constitution a little further expand the powers of the president.
economic disparities
Economic differences are result of the economic factors of a reflection of cultural differences. For example, the people in the Western developed countries are rich lives and high level of education, people will pay more attention to the quality of life, security means more generally. And economic backwardness of the Third World, people care more about food and clothing.
religious differences
Religion is the development of human society to a certain stage of historical phenomenon, Religion has its own (Catholic) Major epidemic in Western Europe and South American; Islam is the scope of the whole of the Middle East and North Africa. Buddhism is more prevalent in Asian countries. The world has three major religions: Christianity, Buddhism and Islam. Christian (Protestant) is major epidemic in Northern Europe, North America and Australia; people in many parts of Asia believe in Buddhist. Different religions have different cultural tendencies and precepts, which affect the way of people understand things, codes of conduct and values.
the concept of Values difference
Values are means of objective evaluation criteria of things. It includes the concept of time, wealth, the attitude towards life, the attitude to risk and so on. Different societies’ people to the same things and problems will come to different and even opposite conclusions.
Geographical differences, ethnic differences, political differences, economic differences, religious differences and differences in concepts have the impact on peoples penetration in the food, clothing, accommodation, festivals and rituals, such as material and cultural life in all its aspects. Thus affecting peoples behavior, values, religious beliefs and modes of thought have a lot of difference, Finally has formed the various countries and areas of cultural differences.
cultural differences on the importance of international business negotiations
Practice in the negotiations, many negotiators often do not understand, or took note of the cultural importance of the significant impact on negotiations. Negotiating parties for foreign culture, some negotiators may have noticed some of the other negotiations, “different” or “hard to understand” the concrete manifestation of negotiations, but that is not important. Some people blindly believe that negotiation is the use of foreign-related facts and figures to speak, and the facts and data are common. Similarly, some foreign countries’ negotiators to negotiations with each other to maintain harmonious relations, they will notice the similarities between both cultures, while ignoring their differences. Lets look at an example.
In 1992, negotiators from China and other 12 experts of different professions to form a delegation to the United States purchases about 30 million . dollars of chemical equipment and technology. The US naturally does everything possible to satisfy them. One of them is negotiations in the first round of the delegation sent to each of them a small souvenir. The Souvenirs packaging is very particular is a beautiful red box, red for advanced. But when the delegation was pleased to open the box when face-to-face in accordance with the Americans, Everyones face appears very not the nature actually--there is a golf cap, but the color is green. American businessmans intention is: after signing the contract, and everyone to play golf. But they don’t know the “be a cuckold” is the biggest taboo in Chinese men. Finally the delegation did not sign the contract, not because the Americans “insult” people, but because they work careless, and even don’t know the common sense that Chinese men taboo “be a cuckold”。 How can we feel free to tens of millions of dollars project to them? It can be seen that the failure of the Americans negotiation is due to they do not understand the Chinese culture.
From the above examples, we can learn in business negotiations, if we do not attach importance to each others cultural differences, the negotiations are likely to lead to failure.
2. Cultural differences on the impact of international business negotiations
The impact of culture on negotiations is extensive and profound, and different cultures will naturally divided people into different groups, this region, the difference between their respective groups are bringing people of different cultural groups tend to alienate each other; On the other hand, different cultural communication and exchanges between people are also obstacles. Therefore, the requirements of the negotiators to accept each others culture, but also by cultural differences, unmistakably reveals that the purpose of understanding of each others behavior, and they have been accepted by the other party, and ultimately reach a consensus agreement.
Overall, the impact on culture negotiations are in following several aspects:
the communication process
Cultural differences on the communication process of the negotiations, first of all is the performance of the communication language in the negotiation process. Language is a bridge of any country, any region and any nation. States companies, individuals to conduct business negotiations, we must first have the language to this. The differences language of international business activities is the most direct and clear. Such as Chinas “white elephant” brand batteries, to the English “White Elephant” it would cause bad associations.
Because the “White Elephant” In addition to the name of animals that have two meanings: “The owner did not use, but may be useful to others; do not reuse things.” Solve the language problem is very simple, you can hire a translator or use a common third language to talk. While the negotiators of the language used in a variety of cultures with higher fitness, but no matter what, the difference is obvious. Such as Japan, Brazil and France Culture, the Japanese style of business communication is the most polite, more positive commitment to the use of recommended and guarantees, and less use of threats, commands and warnings of freedom of speech, their manners of speech style, The most prominent is that they do not often use “no”, “you” and facial gaze, but to maintain a period of silence; Brazilian businessmen to use “no” and “you” at the higher frequency, their negotiation style seems more presumptuous, and it seems not lonely in the negotiations, to gaze at each other and touch each other from time to time; French businessmen negotiating style is all the most presumptuous, in particular, their use of threats and warnings at the highest frequency, in addition, they are still very frequent use of interrupted, facial gaze, as well as “no” and “you”。 It can be seen, only to clarify these differences that can avoid the reticent Japanese, Brazilian over enthusiasm or the French’s misunderstanding of the threat, which achieved the success of international business negotiations.
Cultural differences impact on the negotiation process not only in the process of language communication, but also in the process of non-verbal communication. Cultural differences will lead to different countries or regions in the body language of negotiations, the use of action language significantly different, or even the same language of action is diametrically opposed to the transfer of information. For example, the vast majority of countries are in favor of nod his head for agree. But in India, Nepal and other countries that are certainly shaking his head, that is, shaking his head and smiling, that is positive meaning, some people just do it diagonally on the rise is still a good way, some people are a population frequency said “You are right! You are right!” but a continuously shaking his head, often make others do not know its true psychological and full of doubt. But negotiators shape, movement, language, awareness and use of the differences, also create an obstacle for the negotiations in communication.
Cultural differences also can lead to the negotiators of the differences in communication. People of different cultures have their preferences and habits of communication and cross-cultural negotiations in the negotiating parties often belong to different cultures, have their own customary means of communication. Accustomed to different means of communication between the parties to conduct a more depth in communication, often cause a wide range of issues. From countries with a high culture of the negotiators and those from countries with low culture of the negotiators may be in different ways of expression during the negotiation process. From countries with a high culture of the negotiators may be chosen euphemism, indirect ways to express their meaning. While from low culture of the negotiators preference for using oral expression to negotiate, direct or receive a clear message, straightforward means to express themselves. These two negotiators from different cultures during the negotiations, the party think the other side is often too rough, while the other may think that the other side lack of good faith in negotiations, or misunderstanding the silence of each others conditions for its approval.
the negotiation style
The negotiation style is the main bearing and the attitude which displays in the negotiations activities. the style of negotiations in the course of negotiators’ behavior, conduct and control of the negotiation process of the method and means. Negotiators negotiations Style with a deep cultural stigma. Culture not only determines the Ethics Code of Ethics for negotiators, but also affects the way of thinking negotiators’ behavior and personality, so that make the negotiators of different cultural backgrounds form a very different style of negotiation. Negotiating style of the negotiation process for the negotiations between the two sides approach the relationship, contacts, and even the structure of the negotiations has a direct impact.
Adhere to cultural differences, negotiating styles can be divided into two types: the negotiation style of Oriental and Western style negotiations. Oriental style is based on negotiations as the background of oriental culture of Asian countries negotiation styles, with Japan, South Korea for a typical representative:
Japanese business men are conservative, attention to status-oriented, credit and the initial cooperation, co-dependent relationship between stress and good at negotiating. Japanese attached great importance to the negotiations in the transaction to establish harmonious interpersonal relationships. If there had been contacts with Japanese, before the negotiations should be recall the past exchanges and friendship between the two sides, which will be beneficial to the next negotiations. They did not support and habit the direct, purely commercial activities. If it is the first time to establish trade relations with Japanese, the party responsible for higher status in charge visits in opposite party enterprise at the same level status person in charge is extremely important, it attached great importance to Japanese companies and the trading relationship with you. When negotiations with Japan, it’s the best to send staff rank and status at high-level than the other side. This will facilitate the conduct of the talks. It should also be noted that Japanese womens status in society is lower, generally they not allowed to participate in the operation and management of large companies activities, the Japanese are also in a number of important occasions of non-female. Therefore, when encountered formal negotiations generally not appropriate to allow women to participate in, or else they may be skeptical, and even expressed dissatisfaction.
Korean character stubborn, often stuck to their own views in the negotiations and will not easily compromise. In this case we must grasp the strategy, it is necessary to adhere to argue, but also common sense to master a certain sense of propriety, and sometimes also need to be patient. On the other hand, South Korea in the negotiations seldom to express the views directly, often need the other side to try to figure out, in order to accurately understand the meaning of each other, South Korea may ask the same question repeatedly, so that when making decisions to ensure the correctness. And South Korea signed a contract does not mean that their success will not be changed, for other reasons they would seek to amend or re-start negotiations with you.
Western-type style of negotiation is based on Western culture of Europe and the United States as the background style of negotiations. The main representatives are the United States and United Kingdom.
Americans often talk about “Business is Business” (business to the business) means doing business need to not recognize ones own closest relatives, insist on the principle of things not for people. “Time is money”, “money is everything” is the unswerving credo of American. Their business activities is often straightforward, be anxious for success, business came straight to the point, they always picking up the phone to talk, sit down and get straight to the point, They calculate the progress by the hour and the number of days, their opponents often feel pressure from them. American businessmen do not like the use an agent or participate in negotiations with the consultant, give others the impression that they can say on behalf of the company. They like to sit down to do business immediately. In addition, the United States businessmen attached great importance to economic benefits, they have a slang called: “Bang for Buck”, that is, with minimum capital investment to obtain the greatest benefit.
British merchants engaged in commercial activities pay more attention to informal traders than other countries in the world, but also more conservative. Even today, the world has entered the electronic information age, in the UK by telephone to talk about business is unacceptable. British businessmen are more willing to make full preparations in advance, and then face-to-face talks. As long as they do not believe that the details of a settlement will not solve, they will never sign, all must have to do as rule. As a result of the British very great importance to the position, the title is also very important to them. Therefore, the selection status of the person as a broker of highly influential business, political forces and the role of trade unions in the business also can not be neglected.
Of course, it also must pay attention to the actual negotiations process, although the same cultural background of the negotiators, the talks there was a clear difference, but subject to sub-culture, as well as other factors, the same cultural background of individual negotiators, the negotiations style can be very different.
Cultural values
Cultural values is measure the consequences of peoples behavior and standards. They affecting the way of people understanding the problems and will give rise to a strong emotional impact. In different cultures, values will be very different. Culture in a very appropriate behavior in another culture may be seen as immoral. For example, Americans believe that nepotism is immoral, however it as an obligation at the majority of Latin American culture. Therefore, the Understanding of a certain society in popular as well as these ideas in the personal behavior the degree which respects is very important. Our discussions here will focus on those activities is essential to understand the socio-economic values, more specifically, is these for promote the cross-cultural communicative competence and the values is worth noting.
Ethics
China has heavier ethics. “Acquaintance” and “relationship” has its own special meaning and significance, once the relations have been established, the two sides have become acquaintances or friends, and generous concessions to help the situation appear, and the degree of trust and tolerance will be improved, so the Chinese people have more oral agreement. Americans is not the case, they do not pay attention to cultivating the feelings of both sides, and attempts to separate business and friendship. To deal with the problem, often used the legal means, lawyers come forward to solve the problem is common, it is flexible and not rigid, we should clearly recognize this point. However, once sign the contract, they are very much focused on the legal contract, the performance of the contract is higher. The Chinese delegation to the West, maybe a long time no one could entertain, and this misunderstanding of the people are not interested in their visit; Europeans come to China, No matter what they do may find that there are people who accompanied, and this misunderstanding of the people lack of trust in them. Of foreign visitors, a senior care too much, not to mention dinner, often mistakenly believe that this expressed his companys products or have a preference, this in fact is the Chinese hospitality, This can lead to subsequent disappointment, and even complain.
awareness
In the course of the Chinese and Western cultural traditions and different cultural values, on the negotiations issues tend to have a confrontation or misunderstanding. Chinas national character has a very remarkable phenomenon, that is Settles on the face or the dignity. At the negotiating table, if make a choice from “decent” and “interest”, both the Chinese people will often choose to “decent.” Why do the Chinese people want to save face at all costs? Because of the ideological core of Chinese culture is a group consciousness. In accordance with the sense that each one is not a separate person, but living in a certain social relations, and no face will not the face of others, there is no face on the people and will not be able to live in the social and group life, and may even be abandoned by society and the groups. But not like Westerners, they value the interests of negotiations, they will not hesitate to choose interest from “decent” and “interest” of the two. Chinese people regarding negotiations result whether can bring honor for their face, looks extremely important, as well as some Western negotiators in their works cautioned China in the talks, we must note that use of Chinas national character. It is clear that only a correct understanding and properly grasp the existence of Chinese and Western differences in national character, can effectively help us in a timely manner to correct our own shortcomings and strengthen our own advantages and use of others shortcomings to collapse of others strengths.
the concept of collective
Chinas concept of collective a stronger emphasis on collective responsibility, Therefore the negotiations pattern basically is the collective, but to make the final decisions are a decisive one, and even the decisive one simply has not entered the stage. This is known as the cultural experts of “high from the right to culture”, in the event of difficult issues more complicated, the negotiators on the difficult decisions; and the Western culture of Jurists which was referred to as “low from the right to culture”, on the surface is one or two people out, negotiators have been given the appropriate permissions, or assisted in its decision-making think-tank, which in the negotiations, the sole responsibility of the negotiations were heavier, higher and more flexible.
the concept of time
Concept of time and how it decided the peoples action plan for international business negotiations has a broad impact of the invisible. The daily negotiations behavior manifests observes the difference aspect of time may be is the most obvious results of the performance. Jewish businessmen attached great importance of time. They always believe that time is not money, time and goods, is the capital to make money. Money can borrow, but time can not be borrowed, the time is more valuable than money. A wealthy Jewish income of 200,000 US dollars monthly have been considered such an account: his daily wage is 8 1000 dollars, then about 17 . dollars per minute. If he had been disturbed and waste 5 minutes, then is the equivalent of stolen 85 . dollars in cash. Strong concept of time improved the efficiency of the Jews, they are often at work in seconds and every second counts. On the Jewish people, never appear leave early, late, or to stall for time and so on. In the business activities of the Jews “Uninvited guest” is almost as the same as the “unwelcome person”, because uninvited guests will disrupt the timing of the original, and waste everybodys time. For the time extremely mean of the Jewish, in the time to discuss the concept of time is stronger. Before Jews in the negotiations, the time must have been agreement. They agreed not only in a certain period of a day, but also appointment “from the starting points to a few minutes to talk about.” During the meeting, in addition to polite greetings outside, the Jews immediately to discuss business, this is have good manners and good performance, at the same time that mean respect of each other.
3. how to deal with the cultural differences on international business negotiations
Only recognize and accommodate cultural differences can take the whole process of negotiations in response to countermeasures, including before the negotiations that may arise cultural differences, correctly handle the cultural differences on negotiations, do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences after negotiations.
before the negotiations to understand the cultural differences that may arise
It is essential to understand cultural differences before negotiations. Preparatory work for negotiations include: the background of negotiations and assessment of the situation, to verify the fact the negotiation process, the agenda, the best strategy options and concessions. The background of the negotiations also include the location, site layout, bargaining unit, the Senate on the number of listeners, the channels of communication and the time limit of negotiations. All these preparations must be taken into account possible of cultural differences. For example, the venue layout of cultural differences may have a slightly affected of the cooperation. In the culture of heavier hierarchy, if the room arrangement improper, more casually, it could lead to anxiety and even anger of the other side.
In addition, negotiations styles are due to culture differences. American culture tend to work together “to finalize an agreement”; and Japanese culture likes to talk with everyone separately, if everyone agrees, then arranges a broader scope discussion; the Russian people like a total approach, and one to talk about to settle an agreement, and then the front of the two parties invite a third party, so continue.
Time limit for the control of the negotiations is also very important. Different cultures have different concepts of time. Such as North America, the concept of time is a strong culture, for Americans, time is money. The culture of the Middle East and Latin America was relatively weak concept of time, in their view, time should be enjoyed. Thus, in international business negotiations, the concept of time differences should be prepared.
correct handling of cultural differences in the negotiations
First of all, the choice of language and use in the negotiations, for the Western countries, we must take the exchange-oriented approach, as simple clear as possible, and frank expression of his own ideas, not ambiguous and vague. For example, Americans like argued, language has a confrontational, drastic tone, they think that argued not only the right to express his personal views, but also conducive to problem-solving, divergent points of view will not affect the interpersonal relationships. In the oriental culture, in order to preserve the face sides of others, the face groups or other peoples face, frequent use of ambiguous and indirect language. Even if they disagree with others views, its rare to be rejected or refuted directly, but rather tortuous statement of his views, or to show embarrassment. The values of “Harmony” is the Chinese people to create an atmosphere of harmony as an important means of negotiations, in the negotiating process, they try to avoid friction, and friendship first, they pursued by a permanent long-term friendship and cooperation.
Secondly, the method in the negotiations, to the United States as an example, as a result of the Oriental mode of thinking is the overall orientation, their use in the negotiations is that from the overall to local, descending from general to specific, that is, first reach a consensus of general principles, and then use this to guide specific programs to solve the problem. They do not have an obvious sequence of points, usually until the end of the negotiations, all issues will be made in concessions and commitments in order to reach an agreement. Due to the impact mode of thinking, Westerners analysis the most important things in their logical relationship between the re-specific than the whole, at the beginning of negotiations, they hurry to talk about the specific terms. Therefore, we often resolve the price, delivery, warranties and service contracts and other issues at times, solve each problem, there are concessions and commitments from start to finish, the final agreement is the sum of a series small agreements.
to do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences after negotiations
Related to contract management and follow-up to the exchange of management behavior after negotiations, first as contract, in which the relationship between people-oriented countries such as China, to resolve their disputes often do not rely solely on the legal system, and often rely on the two sides relations. In these cultures, a written contract is very short, it mainly used to describe the respective responsibilities of business partners. Western countries such as the American culture, they generally will regard the contract signing ceremony as not only a waste of time but also a waste of money, so the contract is often signed by send mail. Exchange on the follow-up, the American cultural emphasis on the “distinction between people and things”, so they did not pay attention to follow-up exchanges. Oriental culture in countries such as Japan, keep the majority of the follow-up of foreign exchange customers as international business was an important part of the negotiations. They signed the contract after a long time, they will also carry out as letters, pictures, and exchange visits.
The above analysis of the cultural differences and their impact on international business negotiations, any business men engaged in cross-cultural activities should be highly priority. A cultural difference is an objective reality, the attitude of individuals or groups tend to determine the role of cultural differences, it can exaggerate the cultural differences and also reduce the barrier which causes the cultural difference to the lowest point. People in cross-cultural business negotiations, if able to overcome cultural barriers, to understand, do as the Romans do, learning to stand on other peoples point to think, that we can promote mutual understanding and work together to adapt the two sides and create an economic and cultural environment, so that we can success.
4. References
[1]Cao Ling editor: “Business English negotiations,” Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,
[2]Xie Xiaoying editor: “Business English negotiations”, China Business Press,
[3]Qiu Gejia,Yang Guojun editor: “win-win negotiations of modern business English”, China International Radio Press,
[4]Weng Fengxiang edited: “An Introduction to International Business”, Tsinghua University Press / Beijing Jiao tong University Press, 2006
[5]William Hampton with: “Jewish businessmen in business start-up experience and wisdom,” translated Zheng Ping, Harbin Publishing House,
英语论文格式参考【第三篇】
Idioms universally exist in every language. An Idiom is a word or an expression that cannot be literally translated from the source language into the target language because its idiomatic meaning cannot be understood by literally defining its component parts.(Background) In a broad sense, idioms contain set phrases, proverbs, colloquialisms, slangs, maxims, allusions, etc. (YinLi, 2007:9) In Chinese, they also include enigmatic folk similes. Newmark, a British translation theorist, in his work A Textbook of Translation, said, _I define as culture the way of life and his manifestation that are peculiar to a community that uses a peculiar language as its means of expression. _(Previous research) English Idioms derives from English cultures and daily life. In real context, idioms explain themselves: nine times out of ten they carry their own explanations. If we are unaware of these, we will find ourselves in a state of confusion since we will assign literal meaning to them. The Chinese Idioms, especially the four-character idioms, have their own unique origins which are closely correlative to the Chinese history and cultures. In view of the difficulties in understanding idioms, we should pay due attention and efforts to understand their cultures and customs. This thesis is designed to dig into the cultural differences between Chinese and English and then elaborates on the translation theories applied to idioms. (Subject + Method)
英语论文【第四篇】
1专业英语论文写作能力的重要性
有助于大学生创新思维的建立
大学生创新思维能力薄弱这一点在大学生毕业论文中已反映出来。作为系统地进行了四年专业学习的大学本科生，应当具备运用该学科的基本原理剖析客观事物的前因后果、历史现状、提出观点、指导实践的基本能力，而这种能力集中体现在毕业论文的写作环节。如果在抓好本科毕业论文的同时，开展专业英语论文的写作训练，就可以使学生在自己专业领域内统揽信息，站在学术理论的最前沿，深入分析，认真钻研，提出自己的认识和观点，从而锻炼和培养创新能力。
是大学生完善自我走向社会的保障
专业英语论文的写作与发表是当代大学生应该具备的一项基本技能，也是反映他们的学习力、意志力和创新力的重要标志。当代社会是一个知识经济的社会、能力竞争的社会，知识人士要想在竞争中取胜就必须努力地完善自己的知识结构，积极地开展科学研究工作。不少国家对公开发表价值大的论文的作者给予重奖或晋升其职称或职务。我国人事部门也将公开列为晋升专业技术职务、职称的必要条件。有些用人单位在招聘录用人才时，也将公开列入了考核的内容。那么，论文的数量与质量就成为衡量人才自身素质的高低、研究能力强弱的重要指标。因此，较强的专业英语论文写作能力是继续学业或走向工作岗位的大学生的最强竞争优势。
2专业英语论文写作课程的设置
开课时间
专业英语论文写作课程不宜安排过早，二、三年级正是课程繁重，学生开始进入专业课的学习的阶段，学生对本专业认识由浅入深的阶段，这个阶段还有各种等级考试，学生没有更多的精力来认真学习此课。而四年级下学期又面临学生就业问题，故也不宜安排此课。所以，四年级上学期开设此课是最佳时机。此时，学生对本专业有了一定的认识，对将来的发展方向也有一定的思考。此时开设此课，对大学生即将面临的毕业论文写作有较好的指导意义；为打算继续攻读研究生的学生提供了先决条件，使这些学生在将来的研究学习中，更好地利用国外参考资料，对自己将来的研究生毕业论文写作及可能发表到国外刊物的论文写作都奠定了坚实的基础，这就要比研究生要毕业时再抓英语论文写作少走许多弯路，节省了更多的宝贵时间，可以进行更多的专业研究工作；而对于即将走上工作岗位的同学，专业英语论文的写作也是必不可少的，在工作岗位上也要进行职称的评定，而评定的基本条件就是发表的论文，那么发表1篇高水平的专业英语论文必定是晋级的有力保障。
课程内容
课程内容设置上应区别于普通的专业英语课，应对专业英语论文写作规范进行重点教学。
《MLA科研论文写作规范》[1]是美国现代语言协会（MLA）论述格式规范的英语科研论文的权威指导用书。其主要内容为：选择论文题目、使用图书馆（包括联网信息管理系统，各种检索工具及参考书）；使用因特网资源查找资料出处，评估网上资料出处的可靠性；避免剽窃；撰写有效的文献目录和提纲，撰写草稿；常用的写作指南和工具；拼写、标点、字体格式，人名和数字的处理，引用著作/作品的标题和名称，引文、英语以外其他语言的处理；科研论文的具体格式（包括打印格式、纸张、页面、空距、页眉/页脚、页码、表格和插图、更改与插入、装订等）；运用MLA格式规范在论文后列出资料出处，包括参考书目及其格式、词条、索引；在论文中引用原始资料的记录方法；运用缩写形式的具体写法。这些内容涵盖了英语论文写作规范的全部要求。
普通高等教育面向21世纪“九五”国家教委重点教材之一《英语论文写作与发表》[2]以探讨论文写作为主，兼及与等有关的学术交流。写作部分以专业学术论文的基本组织结构为主体，内容包括论文标题/作者/单位/关键词、摘要、引言、正文、讨论/结论、致谢/参考文献/附录、以及修订文稿等项目；每个项目均包括该项的主要功能、语言特点、写作要求、实例分析等写作技能。
这两本书是我国高等院校师生和研究人员应该学习掌握和遵循的英语论文国际规范，也是科研成果走向世界必须遵循的规范。对培养学习者的英语论文写作能力和运用英语进行国际交流的实际能力具有较强的实用性[3]。
授课方式
本科生专业外语课多数是以“老师在课堂上讲讲单词、读读课文、翻译一下比较难的句子”为模板的，学生收获甚浅。因此有条件的学校应尽可能地让具有丰富的专业英语论文写作经验或在英美高等院校或科研机构学习工作两年以上的老师来上专业英语论文写作课，并且可尝试新的教学方法和手段。张萍[4]的创新教学法包括启发式教学法、讨论式教学法、开放式教学法及发现式教学法等，值得学习借鉴。
大学英语论文【第五篇】
学生学习英语兴趣不高
如今的大学英语课堂，学生普遍存在逃课、上课睡觉、玩手机等现象，英语挂科严重，特别是学生的英语四、六级，考试结果不容乐观。很多大学生把英语视为一道难以逾越的障碍。
缺乏科学的学习方法
学生对于英语学部分采用的是重复记忆、死记硬背的方法，没有找到规律和一些窍门，这种记忆只会是枯燥乏味的，时间久了，学生对于英语的学习兴趣必然会下降，相应的成绩会下降，导致再也不想学英语。
教师的教学方法不够全面
教师若有一套灵活的教学方法，多涉猎一些商务英语知识，学习西方英语课堂中畅所欲言、讨论式的上课方式，使用有创新的教学方法和灵活的引导，而不是一味讲语法，必然能够提升课堂教学水平。但传统的课堂教学只有一种模式，这在很大程度上抑制了学生学习积极性的发挥。基于就业导向的大学英语教学策略现在无论是大中型企业、还是小企业，都需要会英语的人才。这就要求我们的大学英语教学要进行适当的改革。所以在大学英语教学中应该多考虑就业导向，使
二、大学英语教学更有针对性与专业性
教学要有针对性、有重点
教师应对自己班上同学的英语基础有个大概了解
以及一些就业时对英语能力的要求，把这些内容带到课堂上来，有针对性的讲解，总体设置一节课的教学内容把侧重点对学生多重复两遍，把现在就业的紧迫性向学生说明，让学生有种危机感。教师在课堂上所教授的内容要符合就业方向，比如教学生在面试时怎样介绍自己，可以采用演讲的方式来培养学生的学习能力和演讲能力，注重语气以及发音的准确性。这样使以后毕业生找到工作的几率又大了几成，在学校里开始为以后走向社会做准备。
提高教师素养的同时要进行体制改革
大学英语教学的师资力量要具有专门性，可以将教师分为几个组，每个组所针对的方面不同，比如阅读理解组、翻译组等等，从而提高整体的教学水平。针对就业导向的大学英语教学改革要引起从上到下的重视，学校在学生学好习的同时，还应教学生对技能和生存能力的培养，学校是为学生服务的，是为社会培养人才的地方，而学生以后生存时一定会面临就业问题，所以在大学英语教学体制改革中应有机的把就业导向和英语教学结合起来。可以专门成立一个基于就业导向的大学英语教学策略调研组，观察其进展。因此，应颁布多项文件，充分引起教师的重视。同时提高教师的素养，关注就业方面的信息，以实际生活中的应用为主。
教师要运用灵活创新的教学模式
教师是我们学习道路上的领路人，教师应转变旧的教学观念，为大学生毕业做准备，注重因材施教，最终目的是提高学生的英语综合运用能力，而现在的大学英语课堂就是读单词、分析课本，缺少师生之间的沟通，缺少练习英语的环境，缺少把英语与就业结合起来的意识，导致我们在路上遇到老外只能磕磕巴巴的说两句而已，或者我们虽然过了四、六级，但在面试时仍然不会用英语熟练介绍自己。因此，教师应改变上课方法，注重让学生自己发表意见，活跃课堂氛围，各抒己见，培养学生的竞争意识，共同讨论。同时应特别注重说和听，要锻炼出良好的口语表达能力，可以通过学生排练话剧、给英语短剧配音等等方法，使学生在以后的学习和工作中能有自信地利用英语来沟通，提高国际文化素养，来适应国家飞速发展的速度。
培养学生对英语的学习兴趣以及终身学习的能力
兴趣是可以培养的，工作是一辈子的事情，所以我们应对工作就算不抱有极大的热情，也应该培养出一种兴趣，不然，一辈子都在抱怨工作，那我们的生活是很无聊的。学习兴趣是自己培养的，不是别人来逼迫你建立的，有了学习兴趣或者是具有了终身学习的能力，在就业时，都是一个很大的亮点，因为在企业，老板可能更重视的是你的学习能力，而不是一张文凭。这样，教师在授课时，学生可以很愉快地接受，从而在无形之中潜移默化地学习到了就业时需要英语知识。
创建语言应用的仿真环境
在应试教育中，由于升学率的束缚，学生们不重视语言应用能力方面的培养，但当今社会对于高素质复合型外语人才的需求则明确表明英语实际应用能力的重要性。有专家学者认为，我国高校学生英语应用能力低下的根本原因是脱离语言环境学英语，因此，良好的语言环境是学习英语的关键。语言是认识世界的工具，高校可以引进先进的英语视听设备，多组织学生欣赏英文原版电影，让学生身临其境去感受语言的魅力；邀请外国学者到校进行演讲、学术交流研讨，经过对话互动近距离体会英语的奇妙；高校图书馆引进原版英文书籍，同时要求学生经常阅读各种英文书籍、杂志、报刊，收听国外广播电台、观看电视台节目，最大限度接触各种全真型英语的输入，使学生能够广泛了解各国文化，提升个人英语能力。通过创建真切的语言应用环境，学生能够更好地应用英语畅所欲言，这对于培养学生的职业英语应用能力具有重要意义。
提升文化素养
语言不是一成不变的，它是一个国家、一个民族在历史文化发展中形成的，是人们约定俗成的一种表达方式。语言的本质在于应用，只有充分了解这种语言产生的环境，熟悉这个国家的文化、人民的思想、习惯，才能真正做到熟练掌握和运用。因此在高校英语教学中学生要注意掌握“第一手资料”，不看译本，自己揣摩原著中字里行间蕴含的文化现象，在积累词汇量的同时提升自己的阅读能力，了解人们口语中的习惯性表达、俚语等，积累自己的文化素养，为能够更好地运用语言打下基础。在当前的就业市场中，各个企业之间的竞争都开始逐步转变为人才的竞争，而人才的获得，除了要求其有较高的专业技能外，还要求其具备良好的文化素养成为全面发展的综合型人才。因此，通过采取科学的措施提升学生的文化素养，能够更好地帮助其减小就业压力，提升就业率。
三、结语